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Magan, located in what today is known as Oman, is the ancient name for a region linked by trade with Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley. Sumerian and Akkadian texts from around BCE mention trade by sea with Magan, which was especially rich in timber, copper, and the stone diorite. All of these materials were very important for building, art, and making everyday utensils such as pots, and were highly sought after by the rich and powerful kings of Mesopotamia.

The image below shows the site of an ancient Magan copper mine. Magan was also an important trading stop on the way from Mesopotamia to Meluhha, or the Indus Valley.


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Ships from Magan, Meluhha, and the port of Dilmun carried items like wood, copper, carnelian, onions, and spices, trading them for Mesopotamian products such as wool, grain, paint, leather, and oil. From roughly BCE Magan was a very prosperous region, connected with and important to the other major civilizations of the period. Metals such as copper were very important to ancient civilizations, allowing them to make tools, weapons, utensils, sculptures, and jewelry.

Copper was widely used in cities in ancient Mesopotamia and Iran, where craftsmen mixed it with other materials such as arsenic, which made it harder and more durable. As early as around BCE, archeological evidence shows that these regions began to import their copper from Oman, which had large natural deposits of the metal. Ancient texts from Sumer in Southern Mesopotamia mention Magan, which most historians believe to be the ancient name of Oman, as a major source of copper. Bahrain, called Dilmun in Mesopotamian texts, served as the main port through which Omani copper was traded.

The image is an infrared picture of the land surface in the southern part of Oman on the Arabian Peninsula. The purple, green and magenta colors are added by computer to make it easier to see what the image reveals. The magenta area shows huge sand dunes. The green areas are limestone rock on the surface.

Indian Ocean Trade () AP World Notes Unit 2 | Fiveable

The white stripe is a dry stream bed. Near the center of the image is a place archaeologists and historians have been seeking for many years - a lost caravan city called Ubar. The satellite imaging helped locate a likely site for the city because the infrared image detected ancient caravan routes made by the movement of hundreds or even thousands of camels and people at a time, traveling in caravans over hundreds of years.

The caravans wore tracks in the desert, just as feet in a busy building wear tracks in the carpet. The site was found where several routes all came together. Scientists believe this is where the city must have been. A team of archaeologists used the Global Positioning System to find the spot in the desert of Oman matching the satellite imaging. Around the site they found pieces of pottery and some other artifacts.

Background

The main finds at the site, however, were the remains of walls and towers from a large fortress. The walls had partly collapsed into a deep hole, which can be seen in the aerial image taken of the site. The blue lines are reconstructions of the ancient walls. What destroyed the city? The area had many limestone deposits, which the builders of the ancient city had used for the walls and towers. The caravan city had a good supply of water under it, with wells, fruit trees and gardens. Limestone formations often hold underground springs and reservoirs.

Water seeps underground over millennia, dissolving the limestone and forming caverns. The danger of living on limestone formations, however, is collapse. These limestone formations form sinkholes that swallow whatever is above them. The archaeologists found the collapsed walls in the depression formed by the sinkhole, which must have been deeper long ago. With the sudden collapse of the city, it would have been abandoned by anyone surviving such a catastrophe.


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  7. Ubar is a site that historians believe may be a city mentioned in the scriptures, or holy book of Islam, the Qur'an. It was described there as a wealthy city with towers, but one that became a ruin and was lost. Ubar's wealth came from its position on the incense trade routes, not far from what was then a large area where frankincense trees produced their fragrant, dried sap.

    Trade and transportation

    This incense was prized in India, in the Mediterranean region, and in east Africa for its wonderful smell. It was in high demand for use in temples, as medicine, and in perfumes. Ubar is believed to have thrived as a center for incense transport and sale from around BCE to CE. The kamal is a simple navigation device used by Arab navigators in the Indian Ocean since ancient times.

    It consists of a small, rectangular card with a knotted cord passed through it. The purpose of the kamal was to determine latitude at sea by observing the distance between the horizon and a particular star at the same time each night. An alternative--or the original--method for the same purpose involved the use of fingers held parallel to the horizon. The concept is that these reference stars, observed at their highest point in the night sky, would always appear the same distance from the horizon if the position of the ship was at a certain latitude.

    At a higher or lower latitude that is, closer to or farther from the equator the distance would be greater or less. A navigator would hold the card at a measured distance from his face by means of a series of knots in the cord attached to the card. The cord would be held in the teeth. The card would appear smaller or larger depending on how far from his eye level it was. The kamal, or measurement with the fingers, was especially well suited to crossing the Indian Ocean on the monsoon winds, since they blow in a steady easterly or westerly direction during each of the two seasons for going out and returning.

    The pilot's job was to aim for a certain latitude where he knew that the port city lies. In this way, the knots on the cord would represent the latitude needed to reach a series of specific places. This bronze container from Southwestern Arabia was used for burning incense. It is decorated with a crescent moon, snakes, and a type of wild mountain goat called an ibex, all symbols of ancient South Arabian gods.

    Frankincense and myrrh, both types of incense that release a pleasing aroma when burned, were an important part of religious rituals in cultures across the Arabian Peninsula, the Mediterranean and the Near East. They were also used as an insect repellant, as medicine, and for embalming ancient Egyptian mummies.

    Indian Ocean Trade Routes

    Frankincense and myrrh are the dried sap of trees that grow exclusively in Southern Arabia, Ethiopia, and Somalia. During the Classical Era, they were transported by Arab merchants-along with spices, gold, ivory, pearls, precious stones and textiles-through the deserts of the Arabian Peninsula using camel caravans.

    This trade route, known as the Incense Road, went as far north as the Mediterranean port city of Gaza. From there, frankincense and myrrh were shipped across the Roman Empire and to Asia. The abundance of such an expensive and valuable trade good in southern Arabia led many to believe that this land was fabulously wealthy. The coastal city of Sohar in today's Oman is so closely associated with trade in the Indian Ocean and seafaring that it is mentioned as the birthplace of Sindbad the Sailor.

    The Strait of Hormuz

    Whether Sindbad was a real person or not, the character from Thousand and One Arabian Nights is a symbol of the wealth and adventure of Muslim trade during the Abbasid dynasty. The places described in the Sindbad stories are real places and the products such as jewels that Sindbad won during his adventures were real. Only the stories attached to them were fantasy. Sohar was an important port on the Strait of Hormuz that was described in the work of Muslim historians and geographers and many travelers.

    The geographer-historian Yaqut al Hamawi stated that Sohar was named after a descendant of Prophet Noah, given to the place in the 6th century CE. The Muslim geographer Muqadisi described the city during his visit in the 10th century CE as 'flourishing city with a large number of people living there. It is a beautiful city with a comfortable life It is the oldest city in Oman and the most wealthy one. There is no prosperous and developed city on the Persian Sea and Muslim countries other than Sohar. Settlement of the site goes back much further, and many archaeological sites reveal evidence of trade from ancient times through the Islamic period.

    The city was famous as a port with homes and palaces and mosques. The merchants of the city had connections with Africa, India, and China. Sohar Castle, shown in the photo and diagram, was built during the 13th and 14th centuries CE by the rulers of Hormuz and it played a role in struggles with the Portuguese during the 15th century. In keeping with the voyages of Sindbad, a reconstructed Arab dhow was built in Oman in and named The Sohar. The Sohar, as seen on the introductory video, made a voyage from Oman to China. After a design competition to choose an architect, construction on the site began in On May 4, , the Sultan led prayers for the inauguration of the Grand Mosque, named in his honor.

    It is the largest, and many people think, most beautiful building in the Sultanate of Oman. Not only does it serve as a place of worship, but it also serves as an educational center. The carpet shown in the image is from the Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque and is one of the largest hand-woven carpets in the world.